Non‐pollinating cheater wasps benefit from seasonally poor performance of the mutualistic pollinating wasps at the northern limit of the range of Ficus microcarpa

1. Species interactions in tightly bound ecological mutualisms often feature highly specialised species' roles in which competitive exclusion may preclude multi‐species coexistence. Among the 800 fig (Ficus) species, it was originally considered that each was pollinated by their own wasp (Agaonidae). However, recent investigations show that this ‘one‐to‐one’ rule often breaks down, as fig species regularly host multiple agaonids but in ways suggesting that competitive processes still mediate biodiversity outcomes. 2. A phenological survey was conducted of the fig–fig wasp pair, Ficus microcarpa and its associated pollinating wasp, alongside its sister species, the cheating wasp, in Xishuangbanna, China. 3. Reproductive output underwent extreme seasonal variation. Seed and pollinator production fell markedly during cooler, drier months, although high levels of fig production continued. However, this resource was predominantly utilised by the cheater species, which offers no pollination services. Pollinators and cheaters rarely co‐occur, suggesting that temporal coexistence is constrained by competition for access to figs. 4. The overall findings indicate periodic rearrangements of mutualism dynamics, probably resulting from a strongly seasonal environment. Sympatric co‐occurrence may result from a window of opportunity for a functionally divergent agaonid, potentially due to constraints on the main pollinator in adapting to variable year‐round conditions that prevent competitive exclusion.     

Electron Microscopic Studies of the Development of Kinetes in Theileria annulata Dschunkowsky & Luhs, 1904 (Sporozoa, Piroplasmea)

SYNOPSIS. Gamogony of Theileria annulata Dschunkowsky & Luhs occurs within the intestine of nymphs of the tick Hyalomma anatolicum excavatum Koch. After the 5th day post repletionem (p.r.) of the ticks spherical and ovoid parasites were found within the intestinal cells. These stages were thought to represent fertilized macrogametes. These underwent a transformation process leading ultimately to the differentiation of a motile stage, the kinete , which leaves the intestinal cells on the 14th-17th day p.r. and penetrates the alveoles of the salivary glands. The transformation of the stationary into a motile stage takes place by formation of a growing protrusion (= anlage) into an inner, enlarging vacuole. During this process the limiting membrane of the vacuole serves as the outer membrane of the developing motile stage, whereas the 2 inner membranes of its pellicle are newly formed. The steps of this differentiation in T. annulata are compared to the process of ookinete formation in haemosporina.     

Fine‐scale Population Genetic Structure of Two Dioecious Indian Keystone Species,Ficus hispida and Ficus exasperata (Moraceae)

Although Ficus (Moraceae) is a keystone plant genus in the tropics, providing resources to many frugivorous vertebrates, its population genetic structure, which is an important determinant of its long‐term survival, has rarely been investigated. We examined the population genetic structure of two dioecious fig species (Ficus hispida and Ficus exasperata) in the Indian Western Ghats using co‐dominant nuclear microsatellite markers. We found high levels of microsatellite genetic diversity in both species. The regression slopes between genetic relationship coefficients (f_ij) and spatial distances were significantly negative in both species indicating that, on average, individuals in close spatial proximity were more likely to be related than individuals further apart. Mean parent–offspring distance (σ) calculated using these slopes was about 200 m in both species. This should be contrasted with the very long pollen dispersal distances documented for monoecious Ficus species. Nevertheless, overall population genetic diversity remained large suggesting immigrant gene flow. Further studies will be required to analyze broader scale patterns.     

聚果榕上黄jing蚁对传粉小蜂和非传粉小蜂后代数量的影响

2003年12月—2004年5月在中国科学院西双版纳热带植物园,对聚果榕(Ficus racemosa Linn)上活动的黄jing蚁进行了野外观测和隔离实验。预备观察到传粉小蜂钻入榕果内产卵;5种非传粉小蜂在果外用产卵器刺入果壁产卵,疤痕数量即为非传粉小蜂的产卵次数。在用粘鼠胶作隔离黄jing蚁的材料前,做了粘鼠胶对6种小蜂产卵的影响实验,现粘鼠胶颜色气味等对其产卵无影响。随机选8株样树,在样树刚挂果时,在每株树上选取大小、位置、发育时期均相近的2个果枝(一组)。一枝在基部涂上粘鼠胶(处理),另一枝不作任何处理(对照)。当榕果变成橙色且变软时,将其采下单独分装,计数各单果内6种小蜂的数量。传粉小蜂在榕果的雌花期进入果内传粉和产卵,通常数秒内就能从果外的花托口钻入榕果,产卵受黄jing蚁干扰很小。而5种非传粉小蜂都是在榕果壁上将产卵器插入果内产卵,产卵持续的时间变化较大,从几分钟到几个钟头不等,因而其产卵受黄jing蚁干扰较大。双因素方差分析结果表明,黄jing蚁对榕果内各种小蜂的数量百分数都有显著影响(n=82,F1,80>9,P<0.02)。隔离黄jing蚁后,传粉小蜂的后代数量占各种小蜂总数的百分率显著降低(2.14%);未隔离占73.02%;除P. agraensis外,隔离黄jing蚁后,其他4种非传粉小蜂后代百分率均提高。聚果榕上的黄jing蚁有利于传粉小蜂繁殖,不利于非传粉小蜂繁殖,从而间接有益于榕树。     

垂叶榕隐头果内小蜂群落结构与生境关系的初步研究

垂叶榕(Ficusbenjamina)是一种世界上广泛栽培的绿化树种,但是关于其隐头果内小蜂群落结构的研究国内外很少涉及。我们根据植被覆盖度和干扰程度差异在西双版纳州勐仑镇选择了3块不同的样地,采集垂叶榕隐头果180个,统计其中的榕小蜂种类和数量。结果表明:共鉴定出榕小蜂13种,隶属于膜翅目小蜂总科中的8个属,其中Eupristinakoningsbergeri为传粉榕小蜂,其余12种为非传粉小蜂;3个样地中的小蜂群落多样性指数、丰富度存在显著差异,植被覆盖度高、干扰小的样地内小蜂群落多样性指数、丰富度显著高于其他样地;非传粉小蜂在产卵时更倾向于选择植被覆盖度高、干扰相对小的生境,且非传粉小蜂的存在对传粉榕小蜂的繁殖有着显著的负面影响。     

种间专性协同进化关系对榕属分类的影响

榕与榕小蜂的专性共生系统为人们提供了研究生物协同进化规律和进化历史的完美范例,已成为国际上研究植物与昆虫相互作用的一个热点。这也给仅根据外部形态等传统方法进行的榕属经典分类带来了极大的影响和冲击。为了进一步研究榕属的系统与进化,介绍了该属分类学研究的历史、主要分类系统和存在的问题,并对今后榕属分类的发展趋势进行展望。     

印度胶树茎、叶制片新尝试

对于印度胶榕这种特殊类的材料制片,在取材、抽气和染色等过程中,常出现抽气不净和染色不均匀及乳汁脱不掉等问题,影响观察效果。从操作程序上进行了改进,取得了明显的效果,对于特殊植物材料制片有一定的参考价值。     

Secondary galling: a novel feeding strategy among ‘non‐pollinating’ fig wasps from Ficus curtipes

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